SPCH 3710
Chapter 9

I.Attitude focused studies
	A.Concept of Attitude
		1.Thomas & Znaniecki (1927) - "By attitude we understand 
		a process of individual consciousness which determines
		real or possible activity of the individual in the 
		social world."
		2.Allport (1954) - " a mental and neural state of readiness, 
		organized through experience, exerting a directive or
		dynamic influence upon the individual's responses."
		3.Rosenberg & Hovland (1960) - an attitude has 3 components
			a.affective component - feeling toward something
			b.cognitive component - verbal statements of belief
			c.behavioral component - overt actions
	B.Hovland’s Army Research -  believed that attitudes were learned
	and were changed through the same processes that occurred when
	learning took place.
		1.He lead research of 2 basic types
			a.evaluation of existing films
			b.experimental studies in which two different 
			versions of the same film (or message) were
			compared
		2.They determined the film’s impact in 3 main areas
			a.specific factual knowledge gained from the film
			b.specific opinions concerning the Battle of Britain
			c.factual acceptance of the military role and 
			willingness to fight
	C.One-sided & Two-sided messages
		1.One-sided works better with persons initially favorable
		to the message and those with less education
		2.Two-sided works most effective with persons initially 
		opposed to the message and those with greater education

II.The Yale Communication Research Program (Hovland, Janis, & Kelly, 1953)
	A.Three characteristics of the project
		1.concerned with theoretical issues and basic research
		2.it drew upon theoretical developments from diverse 
		sources within psychology and related fields
		3.emphasized testing propositions by controlled experiment
	B.Source credibility
		1.Hovland & Weiss (1951) - designed an experiment to test 
		the effectiveness of source credibility
		2.Horai, Naccari, & Fatoullah (1974) - used the factors 
		of expertise and attractiveness
			a.high, low, or no information - expertise
			b.high, low, or no photograph - attractiveness
				1.the good looking were perceived to 
				be smarter
				2.more agreement with the high 
				expertise source
		3.Whitehead (1968) - objectivity and dynamism play a key 
		role in persuasiveness.  This concept was added to Hovland 
		& Weiss’ notion of credibility coming from expertise.
			a.found 4 dominant factors in his study:  
			trustworthiness, professionalism, dynamism, and 
			objectivity.
		4.Anderson (1971) - source credibility = a weight.  
		That weight, which is determined by various characteristics 
		of the source, amplifies the value of the message.
	C.Fear Appeals - threatens or arouses fear in receivers
		1.Janis & Feshbach -  dental hygiene fear experiment
		(minimal levels	of fear were most effective)
		2.Protection Motivation Theory Model - Rogers 
		& Mewborn (1976) - 3 key elements
			a.magnitude of noxiousness of a depicted event
			b.probability of that event’s occurrence
			c.the efficacy of a protective response

III.Inoculation Theory
	A.Definition of Inoculation - a deliberate exposure to a 
	weakened form of a germ	that stimulates the development of 
	defenses. (medical)
	B.McGuire & Papageorgis’s (1961) - people may have many 
	unchallenged beliefs and these beliefs may be easily swayed
	because a person is not used to defending them. 
	(i.e. cultural truisms)

IV.Katz’s functional approach to attitude change
	A.Katz argues that both attitude formation and change must be 
	understood in terms of the functions that attitudes serve for 
	the personality
	B.Katz’s 4 functions attitudes can serve for the personality
		1.instrumental, adjustive, utilitarian function
		2.ego-defensive function
		3.value-expressive function
		4.knowledge function

V.	Attitudes & Behavior
	A.attitudes may not bear much influence upon behaviors
		1.LaPiere - explored prejudiced ideas held around 
		the U.S.
		2.verbal reports don’t provide good predictors of 
		actual behavior
	B.Festinger (1964) - inverse relationship between attitude 
	change and behavior change
	C.Ajzen & Fishbein (1970) - Equation
		1.A person’s intention to perform a given behavior is 
		a function of:
			a.person’s attitude toward performing that behavior
			b.a person’s perception of the norms governing 
			that behavior and the individual’s motivation to 
			comply with those norms
	D.Two lines of recent research on attitude - behavior consistency
		1.Fishbein approach - incorporates norms and other relevant 
		variables in a predictive model
		2.Weigel & Newman - attempts to predict from attitude to a 
		range of behaviors rather than a single specific behavior
	E.Classical Conditioning of Attitudes
		1.Staats & Staats (1968) - certain words are systematically 
		paired with certain emotional experiences
		2.Staats & Staats argue attitude is nothing more than an
		emotional meaning for a word that has been established by
		classical conditioning 
	F.Low Involvement - Krugman - people process messages from TV 
	differently than they do of messages in print
		1.TV = low involvement, difficult to recall
		2.TV is processed with the right hemisphere of the brain

VI.Techniques of Persuasion
	A.Appeals to Humor
		1.Duncan & Nelson (1985) - humor has more of an effect 
		on low order communication effects.  Humor is effective 
		in attracting attention.
		2.Festinger & Maccoby (1964) - learning theory approach 
		- humor provides good reinforcement and thus a greater 
		attitude change.
		3.distraction approach - humor is distracting
	B.Appeals to Sex
		1.Smith & Engel (1968) - a sexy model can affect the 
		perception or image of a product even if there is very
		little connection made
		2.Alexander & Judd (1978) - sexy models distract viewers 
		attention away from the name of the product of company name
		3.few studies show a positive influence on product 
		recall when it comes to	sex
	C.Repetition
		1.better chance of being seen
		2.better chance of being remembered
		3.Krugman (1972) - only takes 3 good exposures to have 
		desired effect
			a.cognitive response
			b.evaluative response
			c.reminder - beginning of disengagement
	D.New directions in Persuasion Theory
		1.going towards a view  that recognizes the active role 
		of the receiver
		2.Norman Anderson - says that attitude change is a result 
		of the way individuals combine or integrate all the
		information available relevant to a given attitude object